Introduction to Engineering

An easy-to-read and follow style. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Unlike other texts on the topic, Wheeler and Ganji’s third edition offers a practical and accessible introduction to the topic of engineering experimentation including extensive coverage of state-of-the-art technologies and experimental methods, and a logical and comprehensive treatment of experimental methods and analysis. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Detailed practical examples and homework problems throughout. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

This text features a large number of practical, detailed examples and modern homework problems to test and challenge students’ understanding. Over 100 new problems have been created for the third edition. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Statistical Analysis of Experimental Data. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

This text covers the most common statistical techniques used by engineers. In addition to basic concepts, such as mean and standard deviation, the probability distribution functions important to engineers are presented with worked examples. Linear regression, multiple regression, and polynomial regression are covered as well, as are methods to predict the uncertainty intervals of measured variables. The third edition also covers two additional distribution functions (exponential and log-normal) and the uncertainty associated with linear regression. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Experimental Uncertainty Analysis. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Conforming to the latest ASME and ISO standards, the text provides students with a detailed presentation of the most recent approach to experimental uncertainty analysis. Numerous examples are included. (See chapter on Experimental Uncertainty Analysis.) http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Discrete Sampling and Analysis of Time-Varying Signals. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

This chapter introduces the Sampling Rate Theorem, the Fourier decomposition of time varying signals, and the practical use of the Fast Fourier Transform to spectrally analyze signals. The third edition also covers the concept of windowing, which is used to reduce the problem of leakage in processing data with Fourier transforms. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Computerized Data Acquisition Systems. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

This chapter describes overall aspects of computerized data acquisition systems and sub-systems such as analog to digital converters and multiplexers. For the third edition, the material on digital connectivity has been significantly extended and enhanced material on digital oscilloscopes included. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Detailed Description of Common Sensors and Measurement Systems. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Three chapters cover common measurement systems in solid mechanics, thermodynamics (pressure and temperature), and fluid mechanics. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Dynamic Behavior of Measurement Systems. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

The authors provide methods used to specify sensors and estimate errors when measurements are affected by the dynamic characteristics of the instruments themselves. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Guidelines for Planning and Documenting Experiments. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

This chapter contains a number of subjects that are useful for designing and documenting experiments. Subjects include establishing a test matrix, setting a schedule, and documenting the results. http://www.dropshippers.co.za/

Table of Contents

Previous Edition TOC

CHAPTER 1

Introduction 1

• 1.1 Applications of Engineering Experimentation and Measurement 1
• 1.1.1 Measurement in Engineering Experimentation 1
• 1.1.2 Measurement in Operational Systems 3
• 1.2 Objective and Overview 3
• 1.3 Dimensions and Units 3
• 1.4 Closure 5
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CHAPTER 2

General Characteristics of Measurement Systems 6

• 2.1 Generalized Measurement System 6
• 2.2 Validity of Measurement 7
• 2.2.1 Measurement Error and Related Definitions 8
• 2.2.2 Calibration of Measurement Systems 15
• 2.3 Dynamic Measurements 23
• 2.4 Closure 27
• References 27
• Problems 28
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CHAPTER 3

Measurement Systems with Electrical Signals 34

• 3.1 Electrical Signal Measurement Systems 34
• 3.2 Signal Conditioners 35
• 3.2.1 General Characteristics of Signal Amplification 36
• 3.2.2 Amplifiers Using Operational Amplifiers 42
• 3.2.3 Signal Attenuation 48
• 3.2.4 General Aspects of Signal Filtering 50
• 3.2.5 Butterworth Filters Using Operational Amplifiers 53
• 3.2.6 Circuits for Integration, Differentiation, and Comparison 57
• 3.3 Indicating and Recording Devices 58
• 3.3.1 Digital Voltmeters and Multimeters 58
• 3.3.2 Oscilloscopes 59
• 3.3.3 Strip-Chart Recorders 61
• 3.3.4 Data Acquisition Systems 62
• 3.4 Electrical Transmission of Signals Between Components 63
• 3.4.1 Low-Level Analog Voltage Signal Transmission 63
• 3.4.2 High-Level Analog Voltage Signal Transmission 65
• 3.4.3 Current-Loop Analog Signal Transmission 66
• 3.4.4 Digital Signal Transmission 66
• References 67
• Problems 68
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CHAPTER 4

Computerized Data-Acquisition Systems 70

• 4.1 Introduction 70
• 4.2 Computer Systems 71
• 4.2.1 Computer Systems for Data Acquisition 71
• 4.2.2 Components of Computer Systems 72
• 4.2.3 Representing Numbers in Computer Systems 74
• 4.3 Data-Acquisition Components 77
• 4.3.1 Multiplexers 77
• 4.3.2 Basics of Analog-to-Digital Converters 78
• 4.3.3 Practical Analog-to-Digital Converters 85
• 4.3.4 Digital-to-Analog Converters 88
• 4.3.5 Simultaneous Sample-and-Hold Subsystems 89
• 4.4 Configurations of Data-Acquisition Systems 90
• 4.5 Software for Data-Acquisition Systems 92
• 4.5.1 Commercial Software Packages 92
• References 92
• Problems 93
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CHAPTER 5

Discrete Sampling and Analysis of Time-Varying Signals 95

• 5.1 Sampling-Rate Theorem 95
• 5.2 Spectral Analysis of Time-Varying Signals 100
• 5.3 Spectral Analysis Using the Fourier Transform 105
• 5.4 Selecting the Sampling Rate and Filtering 110
• 5.4.1 Selecting the Sampling Rate 110
• 5.4.2 Use of Filtering to Limit Sampling Rate 111
• References 115
• Problems 115
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CHAPTER 6

Statistical Analysis of Experimental Data 118

• 6.1 Introduction 118
• 6.2 General Concepts and Definitions 120
• 6.2.1 Definitions 120
• 6.2.2 Measures of Central Tendency 122
• 6.2.3 Measures of Dispersion 123
• 6.3 Probability 124
• 6.3.1 Probability Distribution Functions 125
• 6.3.2 Some Probability Distribution Functions
• with Engineering Applications 129
• 6.4 Parameter Estimation 139
• 6.4.1 Interval Estimation of the Population Mean 140
• 6.4.2 Interval Estimation of the Population Variance 146
• 6.5 Criterion for Rejecting Questionable Data Points 149
• 6.6 Correlation of Experimental Data 151
• 6.6.1 Correlation Coefficient 151
• 6.6.2 Least-Squares Linear Fit 155
• 6.6.3 Outliers in x — y Data Sets 159
• 6.6.4 Linear Regression Using Data Transformation 163
• 6.6.5 Multiple and Polynomial Regression 164
• 6.7 Linear Functions of Random Variables 168
• 6.8 Applying Computer Software for Statistical Analysis
• of Experimental Data 169
• References 169
• Problems 170
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CHAPTER 7

Experimental Uncertainty Analysis 180

• 7.1 Introduction 180
• 7.2 Propagation of Uncertainties–General Considerations 180
• 7.3 Consideration of Systematic and Random Components
• of Uncertainty 184
• 7.4 Sources of Elemental Error 190
• 7.5 Uncertainty of the Final Results for Multiple-Measurement
• Experiments 195
• 7.6 Uncertainty of the Final Result for Single-Measurement
• Experiments 199
• 7.7 Step-by-Step Procedure for Uncertainty Analysis 202
• 7.8 Interpreting Manufacturers’ Uncertainty Data 203
• 7.9 Applying Uncertainty Analysis in Digital
• Data-Acquisition Systems 204
• 7.10 Additional Considerations for Single-Measurement
• Experiments 208
• 7.11 Closure 210
• References 211
• Problems 211
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CHAPTER 8

Measurement of Solid-Mechanical Quantities 222

• 8.1 Measuring Strain 222
• 8.1.1 Electrical Resistance Strain Gage 222
• 8.1.2 Strain Gage Signal Conditioning 227
• 8.2 Measuring Displacement 232
• 8.2.1 Potentiometer 232
• 8.2.2 Linear and Rotary Variable Differential Transformers 233
• 8.2.3 Capacitive Displacement Sensor 237
• 8.2.4 Digital Encoders 239
• 8.3 Measuring Linear Velocity 239
• 8.3.1 Linear Velocity Transducer 239
• 8.3.2 Doppler Radar Velocity Measurement 240
• 8.3.3 Velocity Determination Using Displacement
• and Acceleration Sensors 241
• 8.4 Measuring Angular Velocity 242
• 8.4.1 Electric Generator Tachometers 242
• 8.4.2 Magnetic Pickup 243
• 8.4.3 Stroboscopic Tachometer 244
• 8.4.4 Photoelectric Tachometer 245
• 8.5 Measuring Acceleration and Vibration 245
• 8.5.1 Piezoelectric Accelerometers 245
• 8.5.2 Strain-Gage Accelerometers 248
• 8.5.3 Servo Accelerometer 249
• 8.5.4 Vibrometer 249
• 8.6 Measuring Force 250
• 8.6.1 Load Cells 250
• 8.6.2 Proving Rings 252
• 8.7 Measuring Rotating Shaft Torque 253
• References 255
• Problems 256
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CHAPTER 9

Measuring Pressure, Temperature, and Humidity 261

• 9.1 Measuring Pressure 261
• 9.1.1 Traditional Pressure-Measuring Devices 261
• 9.1.2 Pressure Transducers 268
• 9.1.3 Measuring a Vacuum 270
• 9.2 Measuring Temperature 274
• 9.2.1 Thermocouples 274
• 9.2.2 Resistance-Temperature Detectors 281
• 9.2.3 Thermistor and Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors 285
• 9.2.4 Mechanical Temperature-Sensing Devices 286
• 9.2.5 Pyrometers and Infrared Thermometers 289
• 9.2.6 Common Temperature-Measurement Errors 293
• 9.3 Measuring Humidity 298
• 9.3.1 Hygrometric Devices 299
• 9.3.2 Dew-Point Devices 299
• 9.3.3 Psychrometric Devices 299
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• Contents
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vii

• 9.4 Fiber-Optic Devices 301
• 9.4.1 Optical Fiber 301
• 9.4.2 General Characteristics of Fiber-Optic Sensors 303
• 9.4.3 Fiber-Optic Displacement Sensors 304
• 9.4.4 Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensors 305
• 9.4.5 Fiber Optic Pressure Sensors 307
• 9.4.6 Other Fiber-Optic Sensors 307
• References 308
• Problems 309
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CHAPTER 10

Measuring Fluid Flow Rate, Fluid Velocity, Fluid Level,

and Combustion Pollutants 313

• 10.1 Systems for Measuring Fluid Flow Rate 313
• 10.1.1 Pressure Differential Devices 313
• 10.1.2 Variable-Area Flowmeters 329
• 10.1.3 Turbine Flowmeters 332
• 10.1.4 Mass Flowmeters 333
• 10.1.5 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters 336
• 10.1.6 Other Methods of Flow Measurement 336
• 10.1.7 Calibrating Flowmeters 340
• 10.2 Systems for Measuring Fluid Velocity 341
• 10.2.1 Pitot-Static Probe 341
• 10.2.2 Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Anemometers 343
• 10.2.3 Fluid Velocity Measurement Using the
• Laser-Doppler Effect 345
• 10.3 Measuring Fluid Level 347
• 10.3.1 Buoyancy Devices 348
• 10.3.2 Differential-Pressure Devices 349
• 10.3.3 Capacitance Devices 350
• 10.3.4 Conductance Devices 351
• 10.3.5 Ultrasonic Devices 351
• 10.3.6 Weight Methods 352
• 10.4 Measuring Air Pollution Species 352
• 10.4.1 Nondispersive Infrared Detectors 353
• 10.4.2 Chemiluminescent Analyzers 354
• 10.4.3 Flame Ionization Detectors 355
• 10.4.4 Other Gas-Analysis Devices 356
• 10.4.5 General Considerations about Sampling and
• Measuring Pollutant Gases 357
• References 358
• Problems 359
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CHAPTER 11

Dynamic Behavior of Measurement Systems 363

• 11.1 Order of a Dynamic Measurement System 363
• 11.2 Zero-Order Measurement Systems 364
• 11.3 First-Order Measurement Systems 364
• 11.3.1 Basic Equations 365
• 11.3.2 Step Input 365
• 11.3.3 Ramp Input 366
• 11.3.4 Sinusoidal Input 368
• 11.3.5 Thermocouple as a First-Order System 368
• 11.4 Second-Order Measurement Systems 373
• 11.4.1 Basic Equations 373
• 11.4.2 Step Input 374
• 11.4.3 Sinusoidal Input 376
• 11.4.4 Force Transducer (Load Cell) as a Second-Order System 377
• 11.4.5 Pressure-Measurement Devices as Second-Order Systems 380
• 11.4.6 Second-Order Systems for Acceleration and Vibration 388
• 11.5 Closure 393
• References 394
• Problems 394
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CHAPTER 12

Guidelines for Planning and Documenting Experiments 397

• 12.1 Overview of an Experimental Program 397
• 12.1.1 Problem Definition 397
• 12.1.2 Experiment Design 398
• 12.1.3 Experiment Construction and Development 398
• 12.1.4 Data Gathering 399
• 12.1.5 Data Analysis 399
• 12.1.6 Interpreting Data and Reporting 399
• 12.2 Common Activities in Experimental Projects 399
• 12.2.1 Dimensional Analysis and Determining
• the Test Rig Scale 399
• 12.2.2 Uncertainty Analysis 403
• 12.2.3 Shakedown Tests 403
• 12.2.4 Test Matrix and Test Sequence 404
• 12.2.5 Scheduling and Cost Estimation 408
• 12.2.6 Design Review 412
• 12.2.7 Documenting Experimental Activities 413
• 12.3 Closure 421
• References 421
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Answers to Selected Problems 422

APPENDIX A

Computational Methods for Chapter 5 425

APPENDIX B

Selected Properties of Substances 429

Glossary 434

Index